1. How did the Ancient Egyptian Empire acquire power?
The Ancient Egyptian Empire was located in North-eastern Africa on the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Modern Egypt borders the Gaza Strip, Israel, Libya, Sudan and the Sinai Peninsula. Most of Egypt is desert plateau but the eastern part contains the Nile River Valley.
- A. Settlements
In approximately 5000 BC, the first settlements were established around the Nile River Valley. The Egyptians split the land into two types: the “black land and the “red land.” The black land, or Kemet, was very fertile land that bordered the Nile. The annual floods left thick black silt on this land making it the only land the ancient Egyptians could use for agriculture. The barren desert, or “red land” that surrounded the fertile land was not only a source of precious metals and semi-precious stones, but it also separated ancient Egypt from neighboring countries and invaders.
Various tribal chiefs ruled the different settlements, which were the predecessors of the Ancient Egyptian Empire. The settlements all had rulers who governed the people, who were farmers and laborers. The rulers supervised the construction of large, walled towns with brick buildings and irrigation systems to manage the floods of the Nile. These leaders were learning how to create societies of large numbers of people and governments that made the societies function efficiently. To do that, the rulers had to master governance, organization, administration, construction, engineering and mathematics and then passed those skills down to their successors. Without a history of leaders with these skills, an empire as large and powerful as Ancient Egypt would have never existed.
B. The Unification of Egypt
Egypt was split into two lands, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, with Lower Egypt in the North and Upper Egypt in the South. Upper Egypt was in the south and stretched north for more than five hundred miles from the first cataract to the beginning of the Nile delta. Lower Egypt was the Nile delta itself. It was only a hundred miles long but was many times wider than Upper Egypt.
Most historians agree that the Ancient Egyptian Empire was established in approximately 3,000 BC when King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt. Menes was the first king of the 1st Dynasty and his crown was a combination of the Upper Egyptian and Lower Egyptian crowns. Now the unified kingdom of Egypt occupied the entire Nile River Valley and Menes built the capital, Memphis, on the border between Lower and Upper Egypt. When Ancient Egypt was its largest in about 1250, it covered all the land from the Syrian coast in the north, the Red Sea in the east, down the Nile River Valley to Nubia in the south and west, and into the Libyan Desert.
During this time, the Ancient Egyptians developed a system of writing called hieroglyphics that used pictures to represent objects, ideas and sounds. The key to understanding hieroglyphics, the Rosetta Stone, was discovered in 1799. In 1822, Jean Champollion found the key when he determined that the three passages written on the Rosetta Stone were the same passage written in three different ways: Greek, Egyptian hieroglyphics and a cursive form of Egyptian. Champollion compared the Greek words with the hieroglyphs and decoded the Rosetta Stone. He then used the Rosetta Stone to create a key for decoding hieroglyphics.
Historians divide the nearly 2,500-year history of the Ancient Egyptian Empire into three kingdoms: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom.
2. How did Ancient Egypt become successful?
Egypt’s location on the Nile River, its geography and fertile lands allowed it to develop, prosper and gain strength.
The Nile River flows through many countries, including, Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan, Sudan, Kenya, Burundi, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Egypt, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda and into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile was critical to the creation, development and survival of the Egyptian Empire.
Life in Ancient Egypt was centered around the Nile and it gave the Egyptians many gifts: water, mud, animals and marshes. The Egyptians used the Nile for everything. They built irrigation channels that carried water into the fields and built dams to hold back the water for use during droughts. The thick black mud left behind from the annual flooding enriched the soil and made the farmland extremely fertile. The Egyptians’ economy was based on agriculture and they were actually able to produce a large surplus of food. The marshlands served as homes for fish and edible water birds, such as ducks and geese and fish, which were important parts of the Egyptian diet. Papyrus was used to make baskets, boats, sandals and lightweight writing material. The first paper made of papyrus leaves was invented during the early years of the Empire.
3. How did Ancient Egypt influence its population?
The rulers of Ancient Egypt used the government and social hierarchy and religion to influence and control its population.
A. Government and Social Structure
Ancient Egypt had the first government that was able to rule an entire nation. It was organized as a rigid hierarchy in the shape of a pyramid. The king or pharaoh, which translates into “Great House” in Egyptian, was at the top of the social pyramid and everyone was required to serve him. The pharaoh had complete power over all of the people. Not only was he the political leader who made all the laws, he was also the religious leader, meaning that the Egyptians actually followed a monarchy and a theocracy. Pharaoh was called “Lord of the Two Lands,” meaning he ruled all of Upper and Lower Egypt. He was also the high priest of every temple, meaning that he represented all the gods on all the Earth. Pharaohs were believed to be gods in the human form of Horus, the God of the Sky and one of the most important gods the Egyptians worshipped.
All the land in Ancient Egypt was owned either by the pharaoh or a few wealthy families. The pharaoh was in charge of Ancient Egypt’s army and would go to war if the Empire was threatened.
The pyramids of Ancient Egypt were built as tombs for the pharaohs. Some historians believe that the pyramid shape was chosen to depict the rays of the sun shining down through clouds. When the pharaohs died, they were mummified and sealed inside the pyramid with treasures, food and other items they would need for the afterlife, including servants. The first stone pyramid was the ‘Step Pyramid’ built for Pharaoh Djoser. It was built at Saqqara, which is located south of modern Cairo on the west bank of the Nile. During the Old Kingdom, the largest of the Pyramids of Giza was built for Pharaoh Khufu. This pyramid took tens of thousands of workers and approximately 20 years to build. The construction of Egyptian pyramids ended in 1700 BC.
Just below the pharaoh in the hierarchy were the priests. The priests had many duties, including teaching school, advising people on problems, funeral rites, and supervising artisans and workers. Every temple had a high priest who collected taxes, performed rituals and oversaw the construction of new temples.
Next in the hierarchy were the officials and scribes, who were responsible with helping the pharaoh govern. As the society grew in size and complexity, it was impossible for the pharaoh to rule by himself, so government officials assisted the king in governing the country. Government officials helped the pharaoh do everything, from building canals to punishing criminals. They made laws and collected taxes, were responsible for the royal storehouses and distributed grain to the people when crops were poor. The people were required to give the king a percentage of the crops, livestock and all they had, and the government official ensured that the people obeyed. The scribes were Egypt’s writers and record keepers. They might work at the king’s palace, travel with high officials or serve as public letter writers or record keepers. They also assisted the tax collectors.
Next were the farmers and free working people or artisans, which included carpenters, painters, jewelers, brick makers, and stonemasons. Many of them provided goods for the king and his family. The farmers provided food. Because the farmers couldn’t work during the flood season, they were required to work on royal building projects, such as irrigation works and building the pyramids, and later the temples.
At the bottom of the hierarchy were the slaves and peasants. Slaves were used as domestic servants and peasants were the laborers who built the pyramids and temples and worked on irrigation projects.
B. Religion
In ancient Egypt, religion was a very important part of daily life. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the mystical world of the gods and the real world were closely intertwined and that they strongly influenced each other. Because the pharaoh was the personification of a god on earth and was the ultimate religious leader of Ancient Egypt, he was worshipped like a god and used religion to influence and control the people.
Thanks to the "Book of the Dead" we know much about ancient Egyptian religion. The book contains the major beliefs and ideas in the ancient Egyptian religion. The Egyptians followed a polytheistic religion, meaning they worshipped many gods. Only during Pharaoh Akhenaten’s reign in the 18th dynasty did the Ancient Egyptians followed a monotheistic religion where they believe in only one god. The ancient Egyptians worshipped over 2,000 gods and goddesses, many of which were part person and part animal. For example, Horus, God of the Sky, had the head of a falcon and a human body. Some of these gods and goddesses were worshipped all over the Empire, but others were worshipped locally. The ancient Egyptians had two chief gods, Amon-Ra, the Sun God and lord of the universe, and Osiris, the God of the Underworld.
Ancient Egyptians believed that all the gods, and therefore the pharaoh, should be obeyed at all times. Every Ancient Egyptian also had a personal god whom he could ask for help with daily matters. The more an individual could submit to and serve his or her god, the more he or she could call on them for protection or assistance with their daily lives. Egyptians also believed worshipping the gods led to a long and healthy life of wealth and prosperity.
4. How did Ancient Egypt interact with other civilizations?
Ancient Egypt’s location on the Nile River made it a center of international trade, which was really “gifts” between rulers. The Nile was the only way goods could travel from the southern parts of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea, meaning all the traders had to pass through Egypt. Egyptian traders traveled all over Africa to find ivory, gold, ostrich feathers and black slaves, which allowed Egyptian culture to spread outside the borders of the Empire.
Ancient Egypt also expanded its empire by conquering other civilizations. For more than four centuries Ancient Egypt enjoyed peace and prosperity, but this all changed in 2200 B.C. Peace turned into a series of civil wars that lasted for the next 150 years local leaders rose in rebellion against the all-powerful pharaoh and eventually the government collapsed. The Empire was split again into Upper and Lower Egypt.
Around 2050 B.C., a new king united Egypt a second time. The capital was moved from Memphis to s where it remained for the next 1,800 years. After Egypt’s reunification, Egypt took over Nubia, which was just over Egypt’s southern border. Nubia had valuable gold and semi-precious stones that Egypt wanted.
In 1700 BC, Egypt was in trouble again. Not only was there a renewed civil war, but there was also the threat of invasion by Hyksos, a desert people. Using superior weapons and technology, the Hyksos conquered the Egyptians and ruled for the next century. The Egyptians eventually overthrew the Hyksos, which began the period known as the New Kingdom.
During the New Kingdom, the pharaohs united Egypt once again, and using the military skills they learned from the Hyksos, they expanded their territory. As their territory grew, their power and wealth did also. Thebes, the capital of the New Kingdom, was very wealthy and known for its treasures such as gold, art, fine cloth and large construction projects.
5. What circumstances led to the end of the Egyptian Empire?
The New Kingdom eventually fell into decline. In 1100 BC, Pharaoh Ramses III led Egypt into war in an attempt to conquer Syria. This war was very expensive and drained Egypt’s treasury.
Beginning in 945 BC, a succession of foreign powers conquered and ruled Egypt. In 728 BC, Piy, a Nubian king conquered Egypt and started the 25th dynasty. In 669 BC, the Assyrians came to power and ruled Egypt until 525 BC when the Persians from the Near East invaded and took power. The Persians ruled until 332 BC when Alexander the Great conquered the kingdom. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, Ptolemy gained control and his descendants ruled Egypt for approximately 275 years. This was known the Ptolemaic period.
Cleopatra, a descendant of Ptolemy, was one of Egypt’s greatest leaders and its last. She ruled from around 51 BC – 30 BC and was the last Egyptian ruler to hold the title of “Pharaoh.” She was a savvy ruler and businesswoman for Egypt. She was able to bring peace and prosperity to Egypt, even after it had gone through bankruptcy and civil war.
Cleopatra lived during a time of change. Hellenism, a version of Greek culture spread by Alexander the Great, had been the dominated the region for hundreds of years. When Cleopatra was born, Hellenism was declining and Rome had been rapidly gaining power and territory. Cleopatra inherited the throne at 18, but she had to share it with her 12 year-old brother. The two of them didn’t get along well, so a group of her brother’s friends removed her from the throne.
The expansion of Rome was due to the conquests of Julius Caesar, Rome’s number one general. In 48 BC, Julius Caesar went to Egypt to settle the dispute between Cleopatra and her brother. Cleopatra won Caesar to her side and he made Cleopatra the sole ruler of Egypt. They eventually fell in love and had a son named Caesarion.
Caesar became dictator of Rome but was murdered in 44 BC by a group of Roman senators. After Caesar’s death, Rome was run by Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son, and Marc Antony, a powerful general who was married to Octavian’s sister. Desperate to stay in power, Cleopatra asked Mark Antony for protection. In 42 BC, she sailed across the sea to meet him in a boat filled with rose petals and manned by maids dressed as sea nymphs. She lay under a golden canopy and was fanned by boys dressed as Cupid. Mark Antony fell in love with her. They travelled back to Egypt together and a few years later, they got married and had three children. Antony decided to make Cleopatra’s children rulers of several Roman territories.
The Romans were very angry with Antony for giving away their territory. Plus, he was already married to Octavian’s sister. So, Octavian convinced the Roman senate to declare war on Egypt. At the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian won and Cleopatra and Antony fled back to Egypt. Most of Antony’s remaining soldiers abandoned him and he and Cleopatra both committed suicide. Afterward, Octavian conquered Egypt, changed his name to Augustus and became the first Roman emperor. The Roman Empire had begun.
6. What Are Some of Ancient Egypt’s Greatest Achievements?
In addition to governance, administration and organization discussed above, the Ancient Egyptians made many great achievements in writing, government, mathematics, architecture, agriculture and shipbuilding.
- A. Architecture
The Ancient Egyptians built some of the most famous structures in the world, such as the Great Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx. The pyramids are some of the most amazing man-made structures ever built. The Ancient Egyptians built the pyramids without the high-tech construction and engineering equipment we have today. The Great Pyramid of Khufu is the largest pyramid in the world and covers 13 acres. It originally stood 488 feet (149m) high, but due to wear and theft of the limestone bricks used as the outer walls, the pyramid now stands 33 feet lower, or 455 feet (138m) high. Around 1,300,000 cut limestone bricks were used to build this pyramid. These are not the bricks and stones we use today; the “small” cut limestone pieces weigh 5,500 pounds each and each of the “large” limestone bricks weighs 33,000 pounds!
- B. Mathematics
The Ancient Egyptians needed high-level math skills to build the pyramids and temples with very simple tools.
- C. Medicine
Ancient Egyptian medicine was famous in the ancient world. Ancient Egyptian doctors could stitch wounds, set broken bones and amputate limbs. They bandaged cuts and used opium as a painkiller. Onions and garlic were some of their health foods.
- D. Shipbuilding
Ancient Egyptians needed to travel on the Nile and by 3000 BC they had built a 75-foot boat. They tied wooden planks together with straps or reeds and used grass to plug the holes. Later they used wooden nails and caulk.
7. What Are Some Fun Facts?
A. Temples were like the McDonald’s of Ancient Egypt; they were everywhere. Each city had its own temple for its city god. At temples, men could communicate directly with the gods.
B. The Ancient Egyptians saw death as a transition to the next world. They believed that they could only reach their full potential in the next world and they devoted a lot of time and wealth in preparation for survival in their lives after death. The Ancient Egyptians believed that each person had three souls, the “ka”, the “ba”, and the “akh”. If these didn’t stay intact, the person would not be able to experience the pleasures of the afterlife. Without the Ancient Egyptians’ beliefs, there would have been very different funeral practices.
C. Ancient Egyptian funeral ceremonies lasted for 70 days. After death, priests recited prayers and made a final attempt to revive the dead. The body was purified at the ibu or ‘place of purification’. At the ibu, the embalmers washed the person with palm wine and water from the Nile. At the wabet, or the embalmer’s workshop, the body was mummified. All organs except for the heart were removed because the heart was the center of intelligence and feeling, the person would need it in the afterlife. The body was then covered with natron to dry it out. All fluids and rags would be saved and buried with the body. After 40 days, the body was washed a second time with water from the Nile and covered with oils to keep the skin elastic. The dried out organs are wrapped in linen and placed back inside of the body. The body was stuffed with dry materials such as linen or sawdust, leaves resin and natron, so the person looked alive. The body was covered in good-smelling oils a second time. Amulets were placed between the layers of linen wrapped around the body. A priest said prayers as the body was being wrapped to ward off evil spirits and help the dead make its journey through the next world. The mummy’s arms and legs were tied together. During the New Kingdom, a papyrus scroll with spells from the “Book of the Dead” was placed between the mummy’s hands. The mummy was wrapped in more layers of linen and liquid resin was painted over the cloth to glue them together. A cloth was wrapped over the body and a picture of Osiris was painted on top. Another large cloth was placed over the mummy and fastened with strips of linen that ran from the top to the bottom and around its middle. A board of painted wood was placed on top of the mummy. The mummy was lowered into its first coffin, or ‘sarcophagus’ and the first sarcophagus was then placed inside a second sarcophagus. During the Old Kingdom, coffins were made of basketry, wood, clay or even stone. At the end of the Old Kingdom, coffins were decorated with food offerings. During the Middle Kingdom, they were inscribed with spells. A funeral was held for the deceased’s family. Finally, items used in daily life such as, games, hand mirrors and clothing were put into the tomb with the mummy.
D. One part of the Book of the Dead describes a trial in which the soul of a dead person argues its case before a jury of 42 gods. The souls pleaded their innocence of any wrongdoings during their lifetimes. During the second part of the judgment process, the soul was weighed against the feather of truth. If the person’s soul was too heavy with sin (defined by pharaoh), the soul was fed to Ammut, ‘the devourer’; this was a death that the Ancient Egyptians believed in in which there was no returning. Life in the Field of Rushes (sort of like Ancient Egyptian heaven) was a mirror image of life in the real world. There were gods and goddesses to worship, blue skies, rivers and boats for transportation, and fields and crops that needed to be ploughed and harvested. The dead were given a plot of land that they were responsible for maintaining. They could either do the work themselves, or make their shabtis (small statuettes) do the work for them. Shabtis were often supplied with agricultural tools such as hoes and baskets and they were often led by an overseer or foreman who carried a flail instead of tools.
E. Embalmers wrapped the dead body in up to 400 yards of linen strips.
F. Items used in daily life such as, games, hand mirrors and clothing were put into the tomb with the mummy.
G. Some Egyptian royal tombs had traps and false stairs that led to nowhere, to fool robbers
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A Message from Ancient Days gave me a lot of information about the Egyptian empire. I learned about its geography and how it benefited the Egyptians, the unification of the two lands and some accomplishments from the three kingdoms. I also learned about the ancient Egyptian religion, government, the Rosetta stone, and great achievements by the ancient Egyptians.
